Compensating Research Participants

The below information is intended to assist researchers in the design of their studies so that their research satisfies regulatory requirements and adheres to best practices related to compensating human research participants. We also include instructions meant to help researchers ensure they provide sufficient information in their IRB application and study documents about compensation for the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to determine whether the compensation is appropriate.

Compensation vs. Reimbursement

Compensation means giving something to participants for their time and effort in a research study. Researchers can give participants money or something else, like gift cards, small items, snacks/meals, course credit, or the opportunity to enter a drawing for a prize. This is different from reimbursement, where researchers pay back participants for things like research-related travel costs.

For each study, researchers need to choose the right way to compensate participants and the amount or value of the compensation. Both depend on who will be taking part and what they will be doing. What is considered “appropriate” compensation depends on the research and the people involved. Some types of compensation may be okay for some people but not for others.

Avoiding Coercion and Undue Influence

Federal regulations require researchers to make sure people do not feel pressured to join a study or do something they don’t want to do (45 CFR 46.116(a)(2)). Coercion is when someone feels forced to do something because of a threat. Undue influence is when they are persuaded to do something against their best interests.

Researchers should avoid coercion and undue influence. For example, they shouldn’t tell people they’ll lose access to services if they don’t join a study. Also, offering too much money to participants to answer questions about private or illegal behavior could pressure them to give answers they don’t want to.

When possible, researchers should pro-rate compensation by offering partial compensation for partial or incomplete participation in specific study activities. Making receipt of compensation contingent upon completion of all study activities may constitute coercion or undue influence.

Equitable Compensation

With few exceptions, everyone doing the same tasks in a study should receive the same compensation. But it’s okay if compensation is different sometimes, like for people in different countries with different customs.

Protecting Participants and Reducing Risk

Compensating participants often requires a researcher to collect personal information, like email addresses. This could put participants’ privacy at risk. Researchers should find ways to give compensation that won’t put people’s information in danger. For example, if a researcher plans to conduct an anonymous, online survey and compensate participants, a means of collecting contact information for participants without linking names or contact information to the data is needed. Options include providing instructions at the end of the survey for participants to email the researcher if they would like to be compensated, creating a separate compensation sign-up survey and providing the compensation survey link at the end of the study survey, or programming the online study survey to pull participants’ email addresses from the study and provide them to the researcher in a separate data sheet from the survey responses.

Sometimes, giving money or things of value to participants could put their well-being at risk. For example, a meal or food item may be preferable to cash or gift cards for participants suffering from or in recovery from drug or alcohol addiction. Researchers need to think about these risks and take steps to keep people safe.

Also, researchers must present compensation information clearly in recruitment and consent materials. And they shouldn’t make it seem like compensation is a reason to join a study.

Finally, compensation is not a benefit to participation, so it should not be described as a benefit.

Instructions for the IRB Application and Study Documents

The IRB must determine whether the proposed compensation promotes voluntary participation, is equitable, and does not present an unnecessary or unacceptable risk of harm/negative consequences to participants. To make this determination, the IRB needs details about what, when, and how compensation will be provided. Additionally, the IRB needs to see how this information will be conveyed to participants during the recruitment and consent processes. This section explains what information must be provided in the IRB application, as well as guidance for the development of the recruitment and consent processes and documents.

The IRB Application

Procedures Page

• Describe the amount/value and method of the payment (i.e., cash, gift card, course credit, etc.), and how and when compensation will be provided.
• Explain why compensation is being provided as well as why the amount being offered is appropriate for (1) the subject population; (2) what is being asked of the participants; and, as applicable, (3) the cultural/social/political context of the research.
• Explain whether partial compensation will be offered. Will participants who complete only some tasks or terminate participation before study completion receive any compensation, and if so, how much?
• It may be appropriate to reimburse participants if they are asked to incur costs (e.g., parking). If participants are asked to incur costs, the extent and nature of these costs must be clearly stated. If they will be reimbursed for some or all of these costs, the details of reimbursement should be explained in a way that differentiates the reimbursement from other forms of compensation (e.g., a $20 Amazon gift card for individual interview and focus group participation and $5 cash as reimbursement for parking fees).
• If compensation is in the form of course credit or extra credit, an alternative activity(s) involving equal time and effort must be made available for individuals who choose not to participate in the research. Describe the alternative activities available for students not participating. If participants will be students taking different courses or different sections of the same course, all associated instructors must agree to provide the same extra credit.
• Compensation may take the form of a chance to win money or a prize in a “drawing” (e.g., a drawing for one of two $50 Amazon gift cards). Given that the terms “lottery” and “raffle” have specific meanings under state laws that typically do not apply to compensation for participation in research, researchers should use the term “drawing” in the application, recruitment, and consent materials. Additionally, a person’s chances of winning the drawing should be conveyed to the participant. See the IRB’s additional guidance and documents about drawings.
• Explain what personally identifiable information will be used to provide the compensation, how that information will be stored and secured, who will have access to it, and when it will be destroyed.

Study Documents

Recruitment

• Recruitment documents may but are not required to include compensation information; however, compensation information should not detract from important information participants need to consider to fully understand the study (e.g., A researcher should not include “$$$20 AMAZON GIFT CARD! $$$” across the top of a recruitment flyer.).

Consent/Assent/Information Sheet

The consent, assent, and information sheet documents must contain the following information:

• The amount or value and method of the payment (i.e., cash, gift card, course credit, etc.), and how and when compensation will be provided.
• Whether or not partial compensation will be offered, and if so, how much.
• If participants will be reimbursed for some or all costs associated with participation in the research, the details of reimbursement should be explained in a way that differentiates the reimbursement from other forms of compensation that may be offered.
• If compensation is a chance to win money or a prize in a “drawing” (e.g. a drawing for a $20 Amazon gift card), the person’s chances of winning should be conveyed.

Additional Concerns

Vulnerable Populations

Below are some general guidelines for and examples of compensation considerations for certain vulnerable populations, as well as examples of forms or methods of compensation that should be avoided.

Minors

In the U.S. “minor” typically refers to someone under the age of 18, but the age at which someone can legally provide consent does vary across jurisdictions. It is generally acceptable to compensate minors (and/or their parents) for their participation in research. When conducting research with minors, researchers should consider the following:

• Because parents have the authority to grant permission for their children to participate in research, compensation may entice a parent to allow their child to participate against the parent’s better judgment and/or pressure their child to participate in the research. Often, researchers can avoid undue influence of and by the parents by reimbursing them for expenses associated with their child’s research (e.g., transportation to the interview) and offering the child a token of appreciation at the end of the study.
• Compensation must be appropriate for the age and/or developmental stage of the child and the context of the study. For example, a small toy may be appropriate for a young child while a gift card may be more appropriate for a teenager. Offering cash to minors should be approached with sensitivity to matters such as how the child might view the value of the cash and whether the child’s possession of the cash could put them at risk of harm.
• Consideration of allergies, health hazards, and food handling requirements must be made when offering candy or other forms of food.
• Peer pressure among minors should also be considered. Researchers should design their study and the offer of compensation so that peer pressure to participate or “get what others are getting” is minimized.

Prisoners

The terms of any individual’s incarceration and/or the site of their incarceration may restrict the amount, form, and method of compensation that is permissible. Researchers must check with the relevant penal institution/authorities about restrictions on compensation before developing their protocol and plan for compensation. Additionally, federal regulations recognize that prisoners experience constraints that may affect their ability to make a truly voluntary decision about participation in research and implore IRBs to ensure that proposed research is not coercive. The following must be considered when proposing compensation for prisoners:

• The amount and method of compensation for participation must be made with consideration of the payment structure within the facility.
• When possible, the offer of compensation should be conveyed privately to individuals to help promote the safety of participants.
• Participation in research cannot be induced with promises of additional institutional privileges.

Low-Income and Other Socially/Materially Vulnerable Populations

Creating opportunities for all members of society to participate in research is a matter of justice. As already discussed, however, compensation should not be so great that it obfuscates the true risks, costs, and benefits of participation or entices participants to engage in activities to which they would be averse or would otherwise find objectionable. Compensation should be tailored to the resources and vulnerabilities of the population. The following considerations must be made:

• The method of compensation must be appropriate for the participants’ circumstances, which could include no or limited access to email, bank accounts, particular retailers, etc. For example, a gift card to a grocery store serving the neighborhood where participants reside may be more appropriate than an Amazon gift card.
• When low-income status intersects with other material or social vulnerabilities, such as homelessness, chronic illness, or minority social status, special care must be given to simultaneously avoid either exploiting potential participants through underpayment or unduly influencing them by offering excessive compensation. Individuals or organizations who work with those populations may be able to guide what amount, form, and method of compensation is appropriate.

(With permission, the order and content of this page, with some exceptions, were reprinted from the University of Oregon IRB’s compensation web page.)